Review PaperThe ‘dirty downside’ of global sporting events: focus on human trafficking for sexual exploitation
Introduction
Large, global sporting events such as the Olympic Games, FIFA World Cup Tournaments, and the U.S. Super Bowl confer advantages as well as disadvantages to the host nation and host city. For the host nation, the global media exposure of an event allows both the country and the host city to improve their identity and image to international markets. Such events are a way to showcase the country and attract foreign investments and trade opportunities. Investment in the local economy acts as a catalyst or stimulus for urban regeneration, business growth, and employment opportunities, and the influx of tourists are a further boost to the economy, at least in the short-term. The direct, short-term economic, social, and cultural benefits to the host city and country are viewed as outweighing the potential disadvantages that include security concerns and, perhaps more importantly, long-term financial costs. Hosting such events is a huge financial gamble, and more often than not the host nation and host city will be saddled with substantial debt.
The media hype surrounding the lead-up to the Games naturally focuses on the host city, the athletes, and the social-cultural offerings. However, the ‘dirty downside’ of these sporting events, such as worker abuse, corruption, and fraud, is often ignored. Further, concerns have been raized that large global sporting events are magnets for the sex industry, notably human trafficking for sexual exploitation.
The sex industry, which includes sex work, strip clubs, escort services, adult and child pornography, is a multibillion international business. An undefined component of the industry is related to human trafficking for sexual exploitation. According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, China, Moldova, Nigeria, and Thailand are the major places from where girls and women are trafficked, known as ‘source’ countries. The most common destinations for victims of human trafficking are Belgium, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Thailand, Turkey and the United States.1 The illegal trade in humans is presumed to be one of the fastest-growing businesses of organized crime and the third-largest criminal enterprize in the world.2 Sex trafficking is illegal, widespread, and very lucrative for the trafficking agents, estimated to generate $12 billion a year.3, 4
Human trafficking is as complex human rights and public health issue (see Box 1 for global guidelines for defining human trafficking). There is an important distinction between human sex trafficking and sex work (e.g., the sale of sex between two consenting adults where sex work is seen as work not involving coerced prostitutes). Victims of sex trafficking are not the same as voluntary sex workers.5 Sex work may be legal or illegal, depending on the local and national law, but sex trafficking is always illegal and always involves force, fraud and coercion.
Whereas with sex work, the individuals are generally aware of the type of work in which they will participate (implies voluntary involvement); with sex trafficking, the individual is a victim who almost always is unaware of the type of work required and is being held against her will (implies involuntary involvement). Sex workers are paid, but sex trafficked individuals are most likely not paid and are forced to pay off their ‘debts’. Forced sex, forced prostitution, sexual slavery, for example, are examples of involuntary engagement in the sex industry. Victims are given a daily quota, which if they do not meet will result in physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. Traffickers use force/violence, drugs, emotional tactics, and financial methods to control their victims.
Whereas some sex workers work independently or with a pimp, individuals who are sex trafficked always have a pimp overseeing their activity. As used herein, ‘pimp’ refers to an individual (pimp if male, or a madam if female) who is an agent for sex workers who collects part of their earnings. The procurer may receive this money in return for advertising services and/or providing physical protection. Pimps and madams, legally known as procurers, can be arrested and charged with pandering; however, as with sex work, the legality of certain actions of a madam or a pimp vary from one region to the next.
This review examines involuntary engagement in the sex industry and its implications not only for the individual but also for Public Health. Trying to get a handle on the extent of the issue is problematic given the clandestine nature of the business. There are few studies that address the issue of human trafficking, and the majority of these studies have serious methodological flaws. That being said, a literature search was conducted to better understand the scope of the problem with a particular focus on human trafficking at large sporting events.
Section snippets
Methods
A PubMed search was conducted using MeSH terms ‘human traffickings’ and ‘sex trafficking’ and ‘human rights abuses’. Subheadings included ‘statistics and numerical data’, ‘legislation and jurispudence’, ‘prevention and control’, and ‘therapy’. The authors selected those studies that focused on the health and/or public health aspects of human trafficking for sex. Only papers published in English were reviewed. The search showed that very few well-designed empirical studies have been conducted on
Public health issues
Whether a female enters the sex industry by choice or by force, fraud or coercion (as in the case of trafficking), the potential for harm to her physical and mental well-being and the potential harm to the male who engages in sex with her should be more than sufficient to require action if only from a public health perspective. After all, the focus of a public health intervention is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the
Trafficking for sex at large international sporting events
While human trafficking is a global problem, there have been questions raised about an increase in sex trafficking at large global sporting events. With the influx of tens of thousands of attendees at such events, concern is that the influx of attendees would contribute to heightened demand for sexual services. In an effort to ascertain the link between trafficking in persons for sexual exploitation with sporting events over the past decade, the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW)
Conclusion
Quantifying human trafficking for sexual exploitation at large global sporting events is very difficult due to the clandestine nature of the business. This is not to say that human trafficking for sex as well as forced sexual exploitation does not occur. It almost certainly exists, but to what extent is the big question. What is undeniable is that women and girls who have been trafficked for sex are victims many times over. They have a much higher risk of developing serious psychological and
Ethical approval
IRB approval was not necessary, as this was a literature review.
Funding
No funding was requested for this review.
Competing interests
Neither author has any competing interests or conflicts to declare.
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