Original ResearchAboriginal street-involved youth experience elevated risk of incarceration
Introduction
The social and health-related harms associated with incarceration are well documented and include elevated rates of communicable disease and chronic illness;1, 2, 3, 4 diminished mental health;4, 5, 6, 7 long-term housing instability;7, 8 barriers to employment;6, 8, 9 and both poor social integration and breakdown of interpersonal relationships.1, 8 The negative impacts of incarceration are often more profound for young offenders, as evidence suggests incarcerated youth are more likely to be victimized, suffer developmental and cognitive delays, and exhibit physical and mental health issues, including suicidal ideation and attempts.10 It has also been shown that youth are more susceptible to peer pressure and do not have the same level of self-regulation and risk perception that adults exhibit.11, 12, 13 Despite the known harms of incarceration, previous studies have found that high juvenile incarceration rates did not foster future deterrence in criminal activity or an overall reduction in crime rates.10, 14, 15 Quite conversely, incarceration has been found to promote and reinforce risk-taking and delinquent behaviours,10, 14, 15 suggesting that incarcerating young people is a problematic policy approach from both a health and social perspective.
Another concerning aspect of incarceration is the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities at all stages of the criminal justice system (e.g. investigation, remand, custody) across western nations.1, 16, 17, 18 Canada shares with the United States, New Zealand and Australia, a long history of high incarceration rates among Aboriginalf populations.16, 17, 19, 20, 21 Specifically, in Australia, the proportion of Aboriginal people in the prison population is reported to be as high as 28% despite Aboriginal people accounting for approximately 3% of the total population.19 Similarly, in Canada, Aboriginal peoples comprise approximately 4% of the general population and 23–27% of inmates in federal and provincial correctional facilities,22, 23 and there is evidence to suggest that this number has been on the rise since the early 2000s.16 This high number translates into Aboriginal adults being incarcerated at rates ten times higher than non-Aboriginal populations. While numerous studies contend that Aboriginal adults are overrepresented in criminal justice systems, there is limited empirical evidence that investigates whether this overrepresentation is similar among Aboriginal youth. A prior study examined the prevalence and correlates of incarceration among street-involved youth in our study setting (At-Risk Youth Study or ARYS),24 but similarly, it did not investigate the influence of Aboriginal ancestry on recent reports of incarceration. Likewise, previous research concerning Aboriginal involvement in the criminal justice system has focused on what characteristics and risk factors are associated with incarceration,16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23 not assessing whether this association persists despite controlling for them. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study to assess whether Aboriginal youth experienced an elevated risk of incarceration among an already high-risk population of street-involved youth, while controlling for drug use practices and engagement in other illicit activities.
Section snippets
Methods
Data for these analyses were collected between September 2005 and May 2013, through the At-Risk Youth Study (ARYS), which has been previously described in detail elsewhere.25 In brief, youth were eligible if they were: between the ages of 14–26 years at time of enrolment; street-involved, defined as experiencing homelessness or being unstably housed (e.g. couch surfing, living in a SRO [single-room occupancy] or shelter), or accessing street-based services (e.g. drop-in centres, street nurses)
Results
In total, 1050 street-involved youth were interviewed during the study period, including 718 (68%) males and 248 (24%) Aboriginal participants, with a median age at baseline of 21 years (Interquartile Range [IQR]: 19–23). This sample contributed to 3744 observations and a median number of three study visits (IQR: 1–5). Over the study period, 378 (36%) participants reported being incarcerated at least once. Characteristics of the study sample, stratified by recent reports of incarceration, are
Discussion
In the present longitudinal study based on data from nearly eight years of observations, Aboriginal ancestry remained positively and significantly associated with incarceration despite adjustment for numerous potential confounders including gender, homelessness, drug use practices, and drug dealing. These data provide compelling evidence that the elevated risk of incarceration among Aboriginal street-involved youth is not solely due to their complex risk and need profile.
A gamut of studies has
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the study participants for their contribution to the research, as well as current and past researchers and staff. We would specifically like to thank Cody Callon, Jennifer Matthews, Deborah Graham, Peter Vann, Steve Kain, Tricia Collingham, Kristie Starr, and Carmen Rock for their research and administrative assistance.
Ethical approval
Providence Health Care/University of British Columbia Research Ethics Board has approved this study.
Funding
The study was supported by the US National Institutes of
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