Elsevier

Public Health

Volume 129, Issue 12, December 2015, Pages 1662-1668
Public Health

Original Research
Aboriginal street-involved youth experience elevated risk of incarceration

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2015.08.003Get rights and content

Highlights

  • 36% of the street-involved youth in this study reported being incarcerated in the previous six months during the study period.

  • Despite controlling for potential confounders, Aboriginal ancestry remained significantly associated with incarceration.

  • Findings suggest that policing practices or other aspects of the criminal justice system may be partly responsible.

Abstract

Objectives

Past research has identified risk factors associated with incarceration among adult Aboriginal populations; however, less is known about incarceration among street-involved Aboriginal youth. Therefore, we undertook this study to longitudinally investigate recent reports of incarceration among a prospective cohort of street-involved youth in Vancouver, Canada.

Methods

Data were collected from a cohort of street-involved, drug-using youth from September 2005 to May 2013. Multivariate generalized estimating equation analyses were employed to examine the potential relationship between Aboriginal ancestry and recent incarceration.

Results

Among our sample of 1050 youth, 248 (24%) reported being of aboriginal ancestry, and 378 (36%) reported being incarcerated in the previous six months at some point during the study period. In multivariate analysis controlling for a range of potential confounders including drug use patterns and other risk factors, Aboriginal ancestry remained significantly associated with recent incarceration (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.12–1.86).

Conclusions

Even after adjusting for drug use patterns and other risk factors associated with incarceration, this study found that Aboriginal street-involved youth were still significantly more likely to be incarcerated than their non-Aboriginal peers. Given the established harms associated with incarceration these findings underscore the pressing need for systematic reform including culturally appropriate interventions to prevent Aboriginal youth from becoming involved with the criminal justice system.

Introduction

The social and health-related harms associated with incarceration are well documented and include elevated rates of communicable disease and chronic illness;1, 2, 3, 4 diminished mental health;4, 5, 6, 7 long-term housing instability;7, 8 barriers to employment;6, 8, 9 and both poor social integration and breakdown of interpersonal relationships.1, 8 The negative impacts of incarceration are often more profound for young offenders, as evidence suggests incarcerated youth are more likely to be victimized, suffer developmental and cognitive delays, and exhibit physical and mental health issues, including suicidal ideation and attempts.10 It has also been shown that youth are more susceptible to peer pressure and do not have the same level of self-regulation and risk perception that adults exhibit.11, 12, 13 Despite the known harms of incarceration, previous studies have found that high juvenile incarceration rates did not foster future deterrence in criminal activity or an overall reduction in crime rates.10, 14, 15 Quite conversely, incarceration has been found to promote and reinforce risk-taking and delinquent behaviours,10, 14, 15 suggesting that incarcerating young people is a problematic policy approach from both a health and social perspective.

Another concerning aspect of incarceration is the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities at all stages of the criminal justice system (e.g. investigation, remand, custody) across western nations.1, 16, 17, 18 Canada shares with the United States, New Zealand and Australia, a long history of high incarceration rates among Aboriginalf populations.16, 17, 19, 20, 21 Specifically, in Australia, the proportion of Aboriginal people in the prison population is reported to be as high as 28% despite Aboriginal people accounting for approximately 3% of the total population.19 Similarly, in Canada, Aboriginal peoples comprise approximately 4% of the general population and 23–27% of inmates in federal and provincial correctional facilities,22, 23 and there is evidence to suggest that this number has been on the rise since the early 2000s.16 This high number translates into Aboriginal adults being incarcerated at rates ten times higher than non-Aboriginal populations. While numerous studies contend that Aboriginal adults are overrepresented in criminal justice systems, there is limited empirical evidence that investigates whether this overrepresentation is similar among Aboriginal youth. A prior study examined the prevalence and correlates of incarceration among street-involved youth in our study setting (At-Risk Youth Study or ARYS),24 but similarly, it did not investigate the influence of Aboriginal ancestry on recent reports of incarceration. Likewise, previous research concerning Aboriginal involvement in the criminal justice system has focused on what characteristics and risk factors are associated with incarceration,16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23 not assessing whether this association persists despite controlling for them. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study to assess whether Aboriginal youth experienced an elevated risk of incarceration among an already high-risk population of street-involved youth, while controlling for drug use practices and engagement in other illicit activities.

Section snippets

Methods

Data for these analyses were collected between September 2005 and May 2013, through the At-Risk Youth Study (ARYS), which has been previously described in detail elsewhere.25 In brief, youth were eligible if they were: between the ages of 14–26 years at time of enrolment; street-involved, defined as experiencing homelessness or being unstably housed (e.g. couch surfing, living in a SRO [single-room occupancy] or shelter), or accessing street-based services (e.g. drop-in centres, street nurses)

Results

In total, 1050 street-involved youth were interviewed during the study period, including 718 (68%) males and 248 (24%) Aboriginal participants, with a median age at baseline of 21 years (Interquartile Range [IQR]: 19–23). This sample contributed to 3744 observations and a median number of three study visits (IQR: 1–5). Over the study period, 378 (36%) participants reported being incarcerated at least once. Characteristics of the study sample, stratified by recent reports of incarceration, are

Discussion

In the present longitudinal study based on data from nearly eight years of observations, Aboriginal ancestry remained positively and significantly associated with incarceration despite adjustment for numerous potential confounders including gender, homelessness, drug use practices, and drug dealing. These data provide compelling evidence that the elevated risk of incarceration among Aboriginal street-involved youth is not solely due to their complex risk and need profile.

A gamut of studies has

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the study participants for their contribution to the research, as well as current and past researchers and staff. We would specifically like to thank Cody Callon, Jennifer Matthews, Deborah Graham, Peter Vann, Steve Kain, Tricia Collingham, Kristie Starr, and Carmen Rock for their research and administrative assistance.

Ethical approval

Providence Health Care/University of British Columbia Research Ethics Board has approved this study.

Funding

The study was supported by the US National Institutes of

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