Public Health
Volume 121, Issue 1 , Pages 54-63 , January 2007

Psychological effects of forest environments on healthy adults: Shinrin-yoku (forest-air bathing, walking) as a possible method of stress reduction

  • E. Morita

      Affiliations

    • Department of Health Promotion and Human Behaviour, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Konoe, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +81757534641; fax: +81757534452.
  • ,
  • S. Fukuda

      Affiliations

    • Department of Health Promotion and Human Behaviour, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Konoe, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501
  • ,
  • J. Nagano

      Affiliations

    • Institute of Health Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
  • ,
  • N. Hamajima

      Affiliations

    • Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
  • ,
  • H. Yamamoto

      Affiliations

    • Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
  • ,
  • Y. Iwai

      Affiliations

    • Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
  • ,
  • T. Nakashima

      Affiliations

    • Field Science Education and Research Centre, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
  • ,
  • H. Ohira

      Affiliations

    • Nagoya University Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya, Japan
  • ,
  • T. Shirakawa

      Affiliations

    • Department of Health Promotion and Human Behaviour, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Konoe, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501

Received 18 August 2005 ,Revised 18 April 2006 ,Accepted 17 May 2006.

References 

  1. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2000 final review. Department of Health and Human Services in the United States; 2001;
  2. Health and Welfare Statistics Association. Annual statistical report of national health conditions. 2003;50:71–86[in Japanese]
  3. Sepa A, Wahlberg J, Vaarala O, Frodi A, Ludvigsson J. Psychological stress may induce diabetes-related autoimmunity in infancy. Diab Care. 2005;28:290–295
  4. Yan LL, Liu K, Matthews KA, Daviglus ML, Ferguson TF, Kiefe CI. Psychosocial factors and risk of hypertension: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. JAMA. 2003;22:2138–2148
  5. Reiche EM, Nunes SO, Morimoto HK. Stress, depression, the immune system, and cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2004;5:617–625
  6. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Glaser R. Depression and immune function: central pathways to morbidity and mortality. J Psychosom Res. 2002;53:873–876
  7. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, McGuire L, Robles TF, Glaser R. Emotions, morbidity, and mortality: new perspectives from psychoneuroimmunology. Annu Rev Psychol. 2002;53:83–107
  8. Eriksen HR, Ihlebaek C, Mikkelsen A, Gronningsaeter H, Sandal GM, Ursin H. Improving subjective health at the worksite: a randomized controlled trial of stress management training, physical exercise and an integrated health programme. Occup Med. 2002;52:383–391
  9. Miller GE, Cohen S. Psychological interventions and the immune system: a meta-analytic review and critique. Health Psychol. 2001;20:47–63
  10. Wang YT, Taylor L, Pearl M, Chang LS. Effects of Tai Chi exercise on physical and mental health of college students. Am J Chin Med. 2004;32:453–459
  11. Weiss M, Nordlie JW, Siegel EP. Mindfulness-based stress reduction as an adjunct to outpatient psychotherapy. Psychother Psychosom. 2005;74:108–112
  12. Murata T, Takahashi T, Hamada T, Omori M, Kosaka H, Yoshida H, et al. Individual trait anxiety levels characterizing the properties of zen meditation. Neuropsychobiology. 2004;50:189–194
  13. Powell DH. Behavioral treatment of debilitating test anxiety among medical students. J Clin Psychol. 2004;60:853–865
  14. Whitehouse WG, Dinges DF, Orne EC, Keller SE, Bales BL, Bauer NK, et al. Psychosocial and immune effects of self-hypnosis training for stress management throughout the first semester of medical school. Psychosom Med. 1996;58:249–263
  15. Atlantis E, Chow CM, Kirby A, Singh MF. An effective exercise-based intervention for improving mental health and quality of life measures: a randomized controlled trial. Prev Med. 2004;39:424–434
  16. McGrady A, Conran P, Dickey D, Garman D, Farris E, Schumann-Brzezinski C. The effects of biofeedback-assisted relaxation on cell-mediated immunity, cortisol, and white blood cell count in healthy adult subjects. J Behav Med. 1992;15:343–354
  17. Jasnoski ML, Kugler J. Relaxation, imagery, and neuroimmunomodulation. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1987;496:722–730
  18. Jin P. Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading in reducing mental and emotional stress. J Psychosom Res. 1992;36:361–370
  19. Ohtsuka Y, Yabunaka N, Takayama S. Shinrin-yoku (forest-air bathing and walking) effectively decreases blood glucose levels in diabetic patients. Int J Biometeorol. 1998;41:125–127
  20. Ohira H, Takagi S, Masui K, Oishi M, Obata A. Effects on shinrin-yoku (forest-air bathing and walking) on mental and physical health. Bull Tokai Women Univ. 1999;19:217–232[in Japanese]
  21. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. State of the world's forests 2003. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2003;
  22. Cabinet Office of Government of Japan. The opinion poll on forests and life 2003. Tokyo: Cabinet Office of Government of Japan; 2004;
  23. Deutscher Heilbäderverband e.v. Deutscher Bäderkalender. Bonn: Flöttmann Verlag GmbH; 2001;
  24. Gesler WM. Therapeutic landscapes: medical issues in light of the new cultural geography. Soc Sci Med. 1992;34:735–746
  25. Williams A. Therapeutic landscapes in holistic medicine. Soc Sci Med. 1998;46:1193–1203
  26. Gesler W. Therapeutic landscapes: an evolving theme. Health Place. 2005;11:295–297
  27. Milligan C, Gatrell A, Bingley A. ‘Cultivating health’: therapeutic landscapes and older people in northern England. Soc Sci Med. 2004;58:1781–1793
  28. Ulrich RS. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science. 1984;224:420–421
  29. Kuo FE, Taylor AF. A potential natural treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence from a national study. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1580–1586
  30. Shimomura Y. Effect of forests on health. J Japan Soc People-Plant Relationships. 2002;1:11–14[in Japanese]
  31. Miyazaki Y, Motohashi Y. Forest environment and physiological response. In:  Agishi Y,  Ohtsuka Y editor. New frontiers in health resort medicine. Sapporo: Kokoku; 1996;p. 67–77
  32. University Forests, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo. Tokyo University forests. Tokyo: Tokyo University Forests Press; 2001;
  33. Terasaki M, Kishimoto Y, Koga A. Construction of a multiple mood scale. Shinrigaku Kenkyu. 1992;62:350–356[in Japanese]
  34. Terasaki M, Koga A, Kishimoto Y. Construction of the multiple mood scale-short form. Proceedings of the 55th annual conversation of japanese psychological association, 1991 [in Japanese].
  35. Shimizu H, Imaei K. Construction of a Japanese version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Jap J Educ Psychol. 1981;29:348–353[in Japanese]
  36. Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (self-evaluation questionnaire). Palo Alto, Cal: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1970;
  37. Barefoot JC, Larsen S, von der Lieth L, Schroll M. Hostility, incidence of acute myocardial infarction, and mortality in a sample of older Danish men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;142:477–484
  38. Shekelle RB, Gale M, Ostfeld AM, Paul O. Hostility, risk of coronary heart disease, and mortality. Psychosom Med. 1983;45:109–114
  39. Rugulies R. Depression as a predictor for coronary heart disease. a review and meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med. 2002;23:51–61
  40. Ariyo AA, Haan M, Tangen CM, Rutledge JC, Cushman M, Dobs A, et al. Depressive symptoms and risks of coronary heart disease and mortality in elderly Americans. Circulation. 2000;102:1773–1779
  41. Kubzansky LD, Kawachi I, Spiro A, Weiss ST, Vokonas PS, Sparrow D. Is worrying bad for your heart? A prospective study of worry and coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study. Circulation. 1997;95:818–824
  42. Cohen S, Doyle WJ, Turner RB, Alper CM, Skoner DP. Emotional style and susceptibility to the common cold. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:652–657
  43. Huppert FA, Whittington JE. Evidence for the independence of positive and negative wellbeing: implications for quality of life assessment. Br J Health Psychol. 2003;8:107–122
  44. Murakami M, Matsuno T, Nakamura N, Kasai H, Arai Y, Kamoshita L, et al. Investigation of the stress-induced condition of healthy people – diagnosis and management of stress-related symptoms. Shinsin Iryo. 1989;1:72–82[in Japanese]
  45. Berger BG, Owen DR. Mood alteration with swimming – swimmers really do ‘feel better’. Psychosom Med. 1983;45:425–433
  46. Head A, Kendall MJ, Ferner R, Eagles C. Acute effects of beta blockade and exercise on mood and anxiety. Br J Sports Med. 1996;30:238–242
  47. Oishi Y, Kanehama S, Hiyane A, Taguti H. Comparison of forest image and mood: psychological examination in a forest environment using Profile of Mood States and Semantic Differential Method. J Japan Forest Soc. 2003;85:70–77[in Japanese]
  48. Ohlin B, Nilsson PM, Nilsson JA, Berglund G. Chronic psychosocial stress predicts long-term cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in middle-aged men. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:867–873

PII: S0033-3506(06)00146-6

doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2006.05.024

Public Health
Volume 121, Issue 1 , Pages 54-63 , January 2007